Getting to know…

Josephine Baker was born on June 3, 1906, in St Louis, Missouri. As usual, just another baby born not knowing who or what she could become. In her early years, she experienced abuse, poverty and by the time she was in her teens she was living on the streets, with no food but what was in the bins. When she moved out at age 14, her new job leads her to a new husband only to be divorced at age 15 and then remarried again. Later on in her life, she became one of the best exotic dancers[1].

Breakthroughs for Black Performers

At the age of 19, Josephine was asked to join an all-black performance in Paris where the city was in a jazz crave. African American musicians and performers were being mesmerized by the French people. In one of her performances, she and her partner wore nothing but a couple of feathers which got the crowd excited, particularly the men. Baker loved Paris because in the United States, African Americans were discriminated in society, whereas in Paris she felt nothing but welcomed. When WWII broke out, she helped smuggle refugees and performed benefit concerts to keep the troops amused. After the war, she went back to Paris and continued to perform finally making it on television. Following her marriage to Jo Bouillon, she decided to restore a castle and village named Les Milandes, where she spent a ton of money with hopes to create it into a tourist target. After that, she went back to the United States to stand up against American racism by declining to entertain any segregated crowds. This was a huge breakthrough creating May 20^thas Josephine Baker Day[2].

Feminism

During her century, several women didn’t have a say in anything. Although the Civil Rights movement was allowed all people in public places, and the ability to vote, Black women were still forced to work as domestic workers, cook, or maids. These women should not have to experience and less respect in public places or their own atmosphere. When Baker resumed to the United States she came to the realization that there was still a tremendous lack of respect that wasn’t being given to all people. Even with all of her Successes, she was not being treated equally. Black women were working, taking care of their family, while also fighting for their equality. Aside from everything, happiness needed to be a priority[3]. When Josephine passed away at age 68, twenty thousand people were standing down the streets in Paris to see the procession. Baker was the first American women ever to be buried in France with military honors. This shows how much of an impact she had on earth, and that her fight for equality and rights have made a difference in the world[4].

The Charleston

This is a dance connected with jazz that was created in the 1920s. This dance came from the song “The Charleston” which was composed by James P. Johnson. This dance is significant because people performed it by themselves which made it unique compared to the other dances of the 1910s. Josephine Baker contributed to The Charleston being wildly popular because she did the dance in 1926 at the Folies Bergère. It kept growing in popularity starting in a two-act musical comedy and eventually opening up on Broadway[5].

Shown in this video, the two ladies are dancing the Charleston. Growing up dancing my whole life, I have for sure done this move almost every year in our jazz routines. I found that you can even use it in different genres such as hip-hop if you change the groove while keeping the right footwork. It is a catchy dance/song, and it is widely known even in today’s society.

WWII

Not only did Josephine help smuggle immigrants, but when she had realized security wasn’t checking her bag thoroughly because of her fame, she started to sneak all different kinds of things in and out of the country. On her sheet music, she had invisible ink filled with different types of messages. Sometimes, she even snuck photos of German military installations by sticking them into her underwear[6]. At the end of the war, Josephine Baker was awarded the Legion of Honour and Military Cross. This proved how dedicated she was, but she kept going after this, by taking part in a charity gala for the victims of the war[7].

To sum it up, Josephine Baker spent her life helping out and doing what she believed in. Although she felt the United States still needed much more change to reach fairness, I believe her going back there and fighting for her rights still played a major role in their society and Europe’s. It is proven how incredible of a woman she is throughout this blog between her performances, her strong beliefs, and her being honored by the military at her funeral. She was an incredibly brave woman who knew what she wanted and strived for it. When I first researched her name, the first thing that came up was that she was an exotic dancer. But after researching deeper, it is clear how much she impacted everyone around her.

1. Joanne Griffith. “Josephine Baker: From exotic dancer to activist.” BBC. December 31, 2014. http://www.bbc.com/culture/story/20141222-from-exotic-dancer-to-activist.
2. BHS. “Josephine Baker.” BlackHistoryNow. August 17, 2011. http://blackhistorynow.com/josephine-baker/.
3. Heidi Williamson. “What Josephine Baker Teaches Us About Women’s Enduring Legacy Within The Civil Rights Movement.” Think Progress. August 28, 2013. https://thinkprogress.org/what-josephine-baker-teaches-us-about-womens-enduring-legacy-within-the-civil-rights-movement-2b4a95b666fd/.
4. “Josephine Baker Biography.” Biography. Accessed July 18, 2018. https://www.biography.com/people/josephine-baker-9195959.
5. “Charleston.” A Closer Walk. Accessed July 18, 2018. https://acloserwalknola.com/dances/charleston/.
6. Ethan Trex. “5 Things You Didn’t Know About Josephine Baker.” Mental Floss. June 3, 2017. http://mentalfloss.com/article/23148/5-things-you-didnt-know-about-josephine-baker.
7. Amélie. “Josephine Baker.” December 27, 2007. https://myhero.com/Josephine_Baker_INSA_FR_07.

Payola;

      (n.) a secret or private payment in return for the promotion of a product, service, etc., through the abuse of one’s position, influence, or facilities. ¹

That is the broad definition of payola. But how does it relate to music? In short payola in the music industry referred to labels paying disc jockeys under the table for extra radio time.  Payola was suspected to have existed for years before 1959, so why did it only become a household word in the 50’s? The uprising in payola practices was likely due to many factors, such as the emergence of better recording technology, the new popularity of “Top 40” music, and the fact that the number of american jockeys had increased x20 ². The investigation into radio practices, which led to the Payola Scandal of 1959, actually began in the game show industry when numerous popular game shows were accused of fraud.  After this discovery, the National Association of Broadcasters investigated 100s of disc jockeys across the country.  Jockeys were taking payments up to $22,000 and passing them off as “consulting fees”. Among the accused was Alan Freed, the man who coined the term “rock ‘n’roll”³.  Freed faced 26 counts of

commercial bribery but got away with only having to pay a fine. Dick Clark, one of the top djs in America at the time, was also among those who were suspected of payola. Clark ended up not being accused, but whether he was truly participating in the payola game, we’ll never know for sure.

“Protect your ass at all times”  ~ Dick Clark in a Rolling Stones interview

After the investigation was over, the government amended the Federal Communication Act of 1934. The act regulates telephone, telegraph, and radio communications in the United States. Payola was listed as a misdemeanor under the amended act to discourage illegal private payments. Under this act, jockeys must now disclose to listeners  if airplay has been purchased by labels. The penalty’s put in place for payola were fines up to $10,000 or one year in prison. ⁴

With that being said, even after the act was amended, payola continued and forms of payola still persist today. Companies have gotten smarten and found more innovative ways to hide their illegal activities, making the problem more sophisticated. Companies today have more resources and therefore further reach, going as far as to run fake promotional competitions and then rigging it so the djs always win.  This was the case in one of the more recent huge scandals involving Sony BMG in 2005⁵. As payola becomes more widespread in the music industry, it becomes more and more common because innocent labels will feel the need to get on board in order to stay competitive. That spiral effect is the reason payola continues to get more and more complicated.  It’s  so popular, bands make parody songs about it; as shown in the song  Hey, Mr.DJ, I Thought You Said We Had a Deal, by They Might be Giants.⁶

Payola influences the music we are exposed to because it allows larger more resourceful labels to get the upper hand.  Money and power outshine pure talent, therefore we are constantly exposed to the the music produced by the top dogs instead of what the public deems as pure talent. The “Top 40” playlist is no longer a representative of what the listeners like, but more so which label handed out the most cash. In a way we are being told what we like and what should be popular because our exposure is being filtered by the jockeys who are participating in payola. Of course this is a never ending cycle, big labels and artists continue to get stronger while small start up artists can’t get a break, meaning we as listeners don’t get exposure to new talent who cannot afford to pay off the djs. Radio stations that participate in illegal activity continue to grow while they run the good guys out of business.

After learning so much about the presence of payola in the world, my opinion is neither for nor against it.  While I feel payola is morally wrong, being realistic, I recognize the place for it in today’s very competitive business environment. Business thrives on the unspoken rules of engagement,  and once you know the unwritten rules being used, you can use them to climb the latter to success. The sad truth is in every industry these politics exist that our unfair to the underdog.  So while I do agree payola is a bad thing ethically, I see why it has become such a prominent scam in the radio industry.

References

¹ Dictionary.com. “Payola.” Accessed July 18, 2018. http://www.dictionary.com/browse/payola.

² Performing Songwriter. “Alan Freed and the Radio Payola Scandal”. Accessed July 18, 2018.  http://performingsongwriter.com/alan-freed-payola-scandal/.

³ Modesto Radio Museum. “Payola Scandal Rocks 50’s Radio”.  Accessed July 18, 2018. http://www.modestoradiomuseum.org/payola.html.

⁴ U.S. Department of Justice. “The Communication Act of 1934”. Accessed July 18, 2018. https://it.ojp.gov/PrivacyLiberty/authorities/statutes/1288.

⁵ The Balance Careers. “Payola: Influencing the Charts”. Accessed July 18, 2018. https://www.thebalancecareers.com/payola-influencing-the-charts-2460759.

Hello again! Taylor here. In today’s blog I am going to be discussing an aspect of history that has helped shape popular music, along with blues and jazz. These genres have been influenced by many things over time, but for now I am going to focus on minstrel shows. 

As described by Joseph Byrd in his article “Whitewashing Blackface Minstrelsy in American College Textbooks”, the minstrel shows were performances of song and dance, along with mockeries of lectures, opera and concert music. They were originally created in England by Charles Dibdin. In his shows, black people were made fun of in comical performances. Eventually this theme moved its way to the United States: a place where African-American slaves were a part of regular life. Slavery soon became a popular theme in minstrelsy.

Here is a clip of a minstrel show.

Another composer Byrd talks about is Dan Emmett, who created a quartet called the Virginia Minstrels. This was where “true blackface minstrelsy began”.[1] In Emmett and the Virginia Minstrels’ shows, they used the banjo and the Americanized fiddle.

He goes on to explain two very important composers of the minstrel shows. They were Thomas Dartmouth “Big Daddy” Rice and George Washington Dixon. Together, in the 1830s, they created the most popular characters of minstrelsy:  Jim Crow and Zip Coon. These characters’ songs and dances became extremely popular. Other shows were quick to follow their lead, causing minstrelsy to become mainstream music.

Another composer Byrd talks about is Dan Emmett, who created a quartet called the Virginia Minstrels. This was where “true blackface minstrelsy began”.[1] In Emmett and the Virginia Minstrels’ shows, they used the banjo and the Americanized fiddle.

Alongside Emmett, Byrd brings up Stephen Foster, an additional important figure of the minstrel shows.  He composed songs that were based on extremely exaggerated stereotypes of the African- American slaves, idolizing and enforced the ideas of slavery. His lyrics focused on spreading horrible lies that said African-Americans had freedom to stop work whenever they wanted and that they were happier as slaves. One of Foster’s most popular songs was his 1848 hit ‘‘Oh! Susanna.”  In the song, the language of the African-American characters contains poor speech skills, portraying them as dumb. This became very popular in minstrelsy lyrics. By 1864, Foster became “America’s minstrel”.[2] As a result, the misconceptions, created by Foster and the other composers of the show, worked their way into the white audience’s daily life.

Stephen Foster: “Oh Susanna!” *Notice the spelling and grammar of the lyrics*

Byrd explains that these racist themes and ideas of the minstrel shows had a major impact on society. Not only could people attend the show, they could buy the sheet music to take home and play as well.

Constant exposure to misconceptions caused the racial conflict to stand strong. People truly believed African-Americans were better off as slaves and they had no worth to society. Because the show was comical for the white, working class audience, it caused minstrel songs to quickly become mainstream.

The racism from the minstrelsy was pushed on and continued past the performances. It even contributed to the racism that continued on into the 20th century. However, Byrd points out that it is usually avoided in textbooks. Authors tend to skip over the racism and only cover a very small portion of minstrel history. Even in college level textbooks, authors avoid the uncomfortable topics of minstrelsy.[3]

In this article I was interested to learn that the minstrel shows did not originate in the United States. The U.S. was a place where slavery was common and racial conflict was high, and where I would assume minstrelsy would come from.

I was also shocked to see inserts of the actual lyrics of the songs. The racism and portrayal of African-Americans is outrageous and hard to believe as actually true.

In Byrd’s article he states that “male youth culture was evolving into a lumpenproletariat”.[4] Byrd is using the term “lumpenproletariat” to refer to the working, low class group of white males that made up the audience at minstrel shows who are laughing at the African-American characters.[5] Therefore, African-Americans are being viewed as even lower than the already low class audience. This displays how little African-Americans meant to white people in this time in history. They were categorized as lower than the already low working class, explaining why the lyrics and portrayals of African-Americans in minstrel songs were so crude and reprehensible.

We now approach the genre of minstrelsy at a harsher angle. After learning the truth behind the comical shows, they lose their happy and comical mask they have been hiding behind. By no means were the minstrel shows innocent, harmless comedies. We now approach the genre knowing the cruel lyrics and portrayals were intentionally created to amuse the white working class.

This extreme extent of racism is what also helped create the Jim Crow laws. The Jim Crow laws were “a collection of state and local statutes that legalized racial segregation.”^[6] The name is derived from one of the key characters in minstrelsy: Jim Crow. These laws separated the white people from the black in almost every public place. For example, public facilities like restaurants, waiting rooms, hospitals, parks and theaters were segregated. Both races could never use the same facilities at the same time, even though they were for the public. Signs were posted everywhere warning black people to stay out. Danger and violence had become a normal part of their lives up until after WWII when the civil rights movement began.[7]

Today, textbooks avoid the harsh racist reality of the minstrel shows, ignoring the fact that white people truly enjoyed them. I believe the reasoning is because it is hard to face such a dark past. No one wants to admit that such crude entertainment was loved by people and brought into their homes in the form of sheet music.  It is embarrassing to admit that people of your country took part in such a racist show. Therefore, it is important to face the reality of Minstrel shows and take accountability. We need to create a better understanding how racism impacts the world, even today. This way, we can make up for any wrong done and prevent it in the future.

[1] Joseph Byrd “Whitewashing Blackface Minstrelsy in American College Textbooks,” Popular Music and Society, 32:1, (2009): 78, DOI: 10.1080/03007760802207882

[2] Ibid. 82

[3] Joseph Byrd “Whitewashing Blackface Minstrelsy in American College Textbooks,” Popular Music and Society, 32:1, (2009): 77-86, DOI: 10.1080/03007760802207882

[4] Ibid. 78

[5] “Lumpenproletariat,” The Free Dictionary, accessed July 14, 2018, https://www.thefreedictionary.com/lumpenproletariat

[6] “Jim Crow Laws,” History.com, July 15, 2018, http://www.history.com/topics/jim-crow-laws

[7]Ibid.  

Works Cited

Byrd, Joseph. “Whitewashing Blackface Minstrelsy in American College Textbooks,” Popular Music and Society, 32:1, (2009): , DOI: 10.1080/03007760802207882

“Jim Crow Laws,” History.com, July 15, 2018, http://www.history.com/topics/jim-crow-laws

“Lumpenproletariat,” The Free Dictionary, accessed July 14, 2018, https://www.thefreedictionary.com/lumpenproletariat

The Payola Scandal of 1959

“Payola is the payment of cash or gifts in exchange for airplay.” “Payola” is a contraction of the words “pay” and”Victrola” (LP record player), and entered the English language via the record business. The first court case involving payola was in 1960” (Payola, 2018). Records began to replace live performance as the main way

to hear—and sell—music. And labels recognized that popular disc jockeys could influence sales.Fingers pointed and words flew over payola, but it wasn’t until the TV quiz show scandals of 1958 (most famously, the show Twenty-One was found to be fixed) that the government got seriously involved. Once the “Do you now or have you ever …?” questions began, the jig was up.With the threat of losing their licenses, some radio stations took the precaution of firing disc jockeys who might put them at risk. In November 1959, in closed and open sessions before the U.S. House Oversight Committee, 335 disc jockeys from around the country admitted to having received over $263,000 in “consulting fees.” Freed went down in 1960, and Congress amended the Federal Communications Act to outlaw “under-the-table payments and require broadcasters to disclose if airplay for a song has been purchased.” Payola became a misdemeanor, with a penalty of up to $10,000 in fines and one year in prison (Hutchinson, 2015).

Most Well-Known Disc Jockeys

First you might ask what is a Disc Jockey? The Disc Jockeys were individuals who controlled the airwaves by picking the musical rotation and they had immense amounts of power because of it. “Every time a label had a record that really needed to be pushed, it entered into a devil’s bargain with the disc jockeys”(Kelly, 2016). The two Disc Jockey’s below were both publicly connected to the Payola Scandal in 1959.

Dick Clark

During the 1950s, Dick Clark also began investing in the music publishing and recording business. His business interests grew to include record companies, song publishing houses, and artist

management groups. When the record industry’s “payola” scandal (involving payment in return for airplay) broke in 1959, Clark told a congressional committee he was unaware performers in whom he had interests had received disproportionate play on his programs. He sold his shares back to the corporation, upon ABC’s suggestion that his participation might be considered a conflict of interest (Dick Clark Biography, 2017).

Alan Freed

Freed was accused of having taken such payments, a charge that he denied. Throughout the ensuing witch hunt, Freed steadfastly

maintained that he never played a record he didn’t like. Nonetheless, he was blackballed within the business (“Alan Freed”, 2018).

Payola Today

Unfortunately, as long as there has been a music industry, there have been attempts — both overt and clandestine — to manufacture hits. You can look as far back as the early 20th century, when musicians known as “song pluggers” were paid to promote sheet music. Today, large media companies own most major-market radio stations. Payola investigations in the mid-2000s led to multimillion-dollar settlements by several major label conglomerates, as well as four of the nation’s largest radio station owners (McCabe, 2017). One of the most popular ways to listen to music now is not only radio, but listening to media streamed online.

These streaming applications include popular playlists and the top hits which demonstrate another form of payola. One example of this would be the application called Spotify. To better monetize their free tier, Spotify is testing their new ‘Sponsored Songs’ feature.  The move will allow brands to put their ads in popular playlists, which sounds fine.  But it’ll also allow labels to promote individual songs, a move that introduces some tricky payola issues (Sanchez, 2017). I believe payola to be bad thing. Payola technically decides which artists and what music will succeed or fail. The listeners may not hear the great music that comes from those who cannot afford to promote their music like others can. The overall idea of payola hurts the music businesses morals and honesty.

Works Cited:

“Alan Freed.” Retrieved July 15^th, 2018. https://www.rockhall.com/inductees/alan-freed

“Dick Clark Biography.” A&E Television Networks. April 21th, 2017. Retrieved July 15^th, 2018. https://www.biography.com/people/dick-clark-9249296

Hutchinson, Lydia. “Alan Freed and the Radio Payola Scandal.” Performing Songwriter. August 20, 2015. Retrieved July 15^th, 2018. http://performingsongwriter.com/alan-freed-payola-scandal/

Kelly, Kim. “A Brief History of American Payola.” Noisey. February 14^th, 2016. Retrieved July 15^th, 2018. https://noisey.vice.com/en_us/article/64y8y9/a-brief-history-of-american-payola

McCabe, Allyson. “In an Ever- Changing Music Industry, Cash for Hits Remains a Constant.” January 17, 2017. Retrieved July 15^th, 2018. https://www.npr.org/2017/01/17/509851163/in-an-ever-changing-music-industry-cash-for-hits-remains-a-constant

“Payola.” Retrieved July 15, 2018. https://www.history-of-rock.com/payola.htm

Sanchez, Daniel. “Spotify Introduces a Brand-New Feature: Payola.” Digital Music News. June 20^th, 2017. Retrieved July 15^th, 2018. https://www.digitalmusicnews.com/2017/06/20/spotify-sponsored-songs-payola/

Biography:

Although little is known about her early years, scholars believe that Smith was born Mamie Robinson in Cincinnati, Ohio in 1883. By the age of 10 she was working as a vaudeville entertainer and touring with the Four Dancing Mitchells. She continued to tour with various acts throughout her teens. By 1913 at the age of 20 she was living and working in Harlem and soon after married William “Smithy” Smith. She remarried twice after her career took off (Garner, 2018).

Obstacles of Race:

A newspaper article by a black writer from 1921 talks about the exploitation of black musicians by phonograph companies. The companies used these musicians of color to sell blues music to black record buyers, but still excluded other musicians of color who performed different kinds of music. This picking and choosing of what music to produce and sell contributes to the problem of erasure in black music. There are certain kinds of music that are recorded and preserved, but others aren’t, even if they are equally important (Kenny, 2017).

ALTHOUGH,

Mamie Smith’s record was purchased by black and white consumers and was recognized as a lucrative marketing segment by studios and record company executives (Garner, 2017).

Mamie Smith’s Significance:

Mamie Smith was the first to record blues songs in 1920 with her versions of Perry Bradford’s “Crazy Blues”, and “It’ s Right Here for You” on Okeh Records. The record was a wild success, selling over a million copies in less than a year, and finally ending up selling over two

million copies (Red Hot Jazz, 2018).  Mamie Smith’s music seemed to open up the eyes of those around her. Record companies thought there was a lot of money to be made selling what was then called “race records” to various minority groups in big cities. The success of “Crazy Blues” prompted other record companies to also try to find other female blues singers that could match the sales of “Crazy Blues”. It was a very important record, because it opened the doors of the recording industry to African-Americans, whether they were Blues, Jazz or popular singers or musicians. Smith herself really wasn’t that much of a Blues singer (Red Hot Jazz, 2018).  Mamie Smith’s music was loved for many reasons. “Crazy Blues”, represents the emergence of black female singers into popular music culture and was therefore a very important contribution to black music. Her pioneering musical career paved the way for more successful female blues and jazz artists like “Ma” Rainey, Bessie Smith (no relation), and Billie Holiday (Garner, 2018).

Success:

Smith’s amount of success and talent was unbelievable. Smith found herself suddenly wealthy, and she spent much of her earnings on clothes, jewelry, real estate,

and servants (Garner, 2018). With all this Mamie Smith mania, New York City suddenly became the blues recording capital of the world. Mamie Smith records have enjoyed tremendous sale in all parts of the country.Mamie Smith and her jazz hounds came, saw, and conquered in Chicago during the month of February. She played to large audiences on the South Side at the Avenue Theatre with immense success.In Mamie Smith’s prime, her stage appearances netted her up to $1,500 a week. Bedecked in diamonds, plumes, and a shimmering gown, she could get a standing ovation just by strutting across the stage (Jasobrecht, 2018). Mamie Smith overall made a historic mark on the musical world that lead women in the right direction to pursue their own music.

Crazy Blues

This was a song about being in a relationship and the love and heartbreak that can go along with it. Throughout this song she wears her emotions on her sleeve about the love she has for a man. Although she also expresses that the love isn’t reciprocated and that he doesn’t treat her right. This song is significant because it was the first blues song recorded and was also recorded by a female which was the first step for black female vocalists.

That Thing Called Love

This song was also a very popular hit of Mamie Smith’s and was her first song recored for OKEH Records.  It has a slower pace and is clearly another love song.

Don’t Care Blues

This song opens up with a wide variety of instruments that catches your attention and ear instantly. Immediately when Mamie Smith begins to sing the lyrics speak to you about being down and out.

Works Cited:

Garner, Carla. “Smith, Mamie.” Black Past. Retrieved July 15^th, 2018. http://www.blackpast.org/aah/smith-mamie-1883-1946 

Kenny, Grace. “Mamie Smith’s Crazy Blues.” October 10^th, 2017. Retrieved July 15^th, 2018. https://pages.stolaf.edu/americanmusic/tag/mamie-smith/

“Mamie Smith.” Retrieved July 15^th, 2018. http://www.redhotjazz.com/mamie.html

“Mamie Smith: The First Lady of the Blues.” Retrieved July 15^th, 2018. http://jasobrecht.com/mamie-smith-the-first-lady-of-the-blues/