Hi, my name is Lauren Worobec and I am here to talk about Gertrude “Ma” Rainey and her impact on the music and blues era.

Ma Rainey was born Gertrude Pridgett on April 26th, 1886 in Columbus Georgia. She left home as soon as she was able to at the age of fourteen to become a vaudeville performer.(NYTimes n.d.)She was known as the “Mother of the Blues” and was recognized as the first great female blues vocalist. Gertrude married a comedian and songster named William Rainey at the age of eighteen. The two of them were then known as Ma and Pa Rainey. The couple traveled all around the south performing in tent shows and cabarets. She is also no stranger on the vaudeville stages. The couple sang, danced in their performances. The Rainey’s toured with Fat Chappelle’s Rabbit Foot Minstrels and eventually were “Assassinators of the Blues”

After separating with her husband, Pa Rainey in 1916 and then toured with her own band. She then released her first song “Moonshine Blues” with Lovie Austin and “Yonder Comes the Blues” with Louis Armstrong. Ma Rainey’s songs were different from other blue singers because of her experiences as a black woman from the south brought a new aspect to her songs.  Her songs were about heartbreak, promiscuity, drinking binges, odyssey of travel, the workplace, prison road gang and magic and superstition.

Ma Rainey was known for wearing long beautiful gowns, covered with diamonds. Always wearing necklaces of gold and had gold in her teeth that would sparkle on stage. One memorial moment for Ma Rainey was when she stepped on stage with an ostrich feather in one hand and a gun in the other. (atlasobscura n.d.) Hre on stage was over powering and filled with confidence. After her mother and sister passed away, she retired and bought two entertainment venues. She carried out she years in Columbus until she passed away on December 22^nd, 1939. (Biography n.d.)

Ma Rainey was one of the first black diva in history. She then took Bessie Smith under her wing and helped and coached her in her singing. Bessie toured with Ma, where Ma was a get influence in her songs and singing. They were both recorded by 1923. (NYTimes n.d.)Both of these young singers were openly bisexual.

Ma Rainey had a large influence on the American blues. She was also a role model in the African American womanhood. She helped establish the world of women in the blues industry. She was acknowledges her accomplishments when she was inducted into the Blues Foundation’s Blues hall of Fame, the Rock and Roll hall of Fame, the Georgia Music Hall of Fame, and Georgia Woman of Achievement.

Some challenges that Ma Rainey faced was, she was the first black woman to really sing the blues and have such an influence on the era. Ma Rainey has also expressed and stated that lesbian sexuality and this was very uncommon at this time. She overcame this obstacle by keeping he music the most important and not letting what other people say about her influence what she does.

Several artists have covered her songs including, Ray Charles, Elvis Presley and Cher. Her name is also mentioned by Bob Dylan in his song Tombstone Blues. (CBC n.d.)

Here is a singer Alana Bridgewater who sang a cover of one of Ma Rainey songs.  She is still a role model today and has fans who love and admire who she was and what she did for music.

I am a dancer and I am trained in CDTA (Canadian Dance Teachers Association) in tap. In that training, the basic tap steps where invented and started on the stages in Vaudeville. There are steps like grapevine, time steps shim sham shimmy. It is nice to hear the music that would have been sung for the vaudeville dancers and how those tap steps would be danced to that music.

This song is about a love story and an unfaithful partner. It was very popular in 1925, and multiple artists recorded their own version years later. See See Rider was seen as a song about a easy woman, or “easy rider” about a woman who is experienced in sexual encounters, or a woman who has been married multiple times. In Ma’s interpretation is referring to the male in the love story. Experiencing that he is the unfaithful one in the relationship.

Moonshine Blues was one of her early written songs. It demonstrated the smooth, relaxed blues that she was commonly known for. It was seen that the song was about drinking and the effects that alcohol has on a man.

Don’t Fish in my Sea is either reflecting on a relationship with her father or an adulterous male. She uses powerful words to paint a detailed picture of the relationship and the story line.

Works Cited

n.d. Biography.https://www.biography.com/people/ma-rainey-9542413.

n.d. CBC.https://www.cbc.ca/radio/q/tuesday-may-15-2018-mary-steenburgen-james-bay-and-more-1.4662028/gateway-to-the-music-of-blues-singer-ma-rainey-1.4662156.

n.d. NYTimes.https://www.nytimes.com/1984/10/28/theater/the-real-ma-rainey-had-a-certain-way-with-the-blues.html.

Mamie Smith was the first to record blues songs in 1920 with her versions of Perry Bradford’s “Crazy Blues”, and “It’ s Right Here for You” on Okeh Records. The record was a wild success, selling over a million copies in less than a year, and finally ending up selling over two million copies.

although little is known about her early years, scholars believe that Mamie Robinson was born in Cincinnati, Ohio in 1883. By the age of 10 she was working as a vaudeville entertainer and touring with the Four Dancing Mitchells. She continued to tour with various acts throughout her teens. By 1913 at the age of 20, she was living and working in Harlem and soon after married William “Smithy” Smith. She remarried twice after her career took off. She was the first African-American female performer to make a phonograph record, paving the way for all the classic blues women of the 1920s and beyond. In the 1930s, Smith began touring and recording with a band called the Jazz Hounds, bringing about the birth of what was called ‘race music‘. This event was the first realisation that there was a big demand among the African-American population for a kind of music that was recognisably their own. This opened the doors for other ‘Blues Divas’, and eventually all kinds of Blues music, to be recorded and distributed.

Before Smith’s hit, blues music only catered to the underworld of brothels and vaudeville theatres. Afterwards, blues music became as “respectable” as the black syncopated orchestras, despite the fact that it was music about sorrow instead of joy.

On February 14, 1920, Smith recorded “That Thing Called Love” and “You Can’t Keep a Good Man Down” for Okeh Records, in New York City, after African-American songwriter and bandleader Perry Bradford persuaded Fred Hagar. This was the first recording by a black blues singer; the musicians, however, were all white. Hagar had received threats from Northern and Southern pressure groups saying they would boycott the company if he recorded a black singer. Despite these threats, the record was a commercial success and opened the door for more black musicians to record.

EVERY CHALLENGE IS A STEP TOWARD CONQUERING THE UNKNOWN- Mamie Smith

Mamie Smith would have faced a great deal of prejudice, racism and struggles to become a performer. Yet, she paved the way for others like her to enter the music world. Her positivity, religious beliefs and an optimistic attitude are what gave her the strength to pursue her musical dreams.

I included this song of hers because it is what made her as popular as she is, because of this song Fred Hagar chose to record her, regardless of the threats he received. The historical significance of “Crazy Blues”, had it inducted into the Grammy Hall of Fame in 1994, and in 2005, and it was selected for permanent preservation in the National Recording Registry at the Library of Congress.                                                                       

I chose to include these other songs of hers because they were the most popular and are the songs that launched her career.

Smith found herself suddenly wealthy, and she spent much of her earnings on clothes, jewellery, real estate, and servants. She toured with the Jazz Hounds, recorded a number of follow-up records, and performed in New York theatres. She also appeared in a series of low-budget African American films during the early 1940s

The curves in the pathway of life, give birth to the straight and narrow road ahead.  Begin your journey!- Mamie Smith

Works cited

“Smith, M. 1. (2018). Smith, Mamie 1883–1946. Retrieved from https://www.encyclopedia.com/history/historians-and-chronicles/historians-miscellaneous-biographies/mamie-smith

Kernfeld, B. (2000). Smith, Mamie (26 May 1883–30 October 1946?), blues and vaudeville singer and film actress. American National Biography Online. doi:10.1093/anb/9780198606697.article.1802848

Smith, Mamie (1883-1946) | The Black Past: Remembered and Reclaimed. (n.d.). Retrieved from http://www.blackpast.org/aah/smith-mamie-1883-1946

It all began in the 1950s, when records began to replace live performances as the main way to hear and sell music and labels recognized that popular disc jockeys could influence sales (Hutchinson, 2015).

In 1950, there were approximately 250 disc jockeys in the USA (Hutchinson, 2015). By 1957, the number had grown to over 5,000, this was partially due to the amount of new records being produced, both by major and indie labels (Hutchinson, 2015).

“Pay” and “Victrola” (record player)

Payola referred to manufacturing a popular hit by paying for radio play (History, 2018).

When money changes hands in exchange for radio play, certain artists get more exposure than others (McDonald, 2018). This is the basis that formed Payola. When Payola entered the picture, it was evident that the record label became the decider of which artists failed and which would succeed (McDonald, 2018). The

Aware of their rising status, jocks established flat rate deals with labels and record distributors (Hutchinson, 2015). More influential jocks commanded percentages of grosses for local concerts, lavish trips, free records by the boxful, plus all the swag (Hutchinson, 2015). It was estimated that even mid-level DJs could expect to clear at least $50 per week in bribes, with higher profile jocks commanding much higher prices and much flashier swag (Kelly, 2016).

Alan Freed and Dick Clark both played important parts in the rise of rock ‘n’ roll. And though they both denied ever accepting payola, it’s almost impossible to imagine two young, popular jocks not succumbing to a little temptation.

It was Freed who ended up taking the fall for DJs everywhere…

Freed’s family and allies in broadcasting quickly deserted him. And he refused to sign an affidavit saying that he’d never accepted payola (Hutchinson, 2015). WABC fired Freed, and he was charged with 26 counts of commercial bribery (Hutchinson, 2015).

The Legal Side:

As Payola escalated, Variety and Billboard did lengthy features, calling for reform and government intervention (Hutchinson, 2015). ASCAP was also vocal about their opposition to payola, using it as a means to criticize their competitor BMI (Hutchinson, 2015).

Under US law, a radio station can play a specific song in exchange for money, but this must be disclosed on the air as being sponsored airtime (Wikipedia, 2018).  The Congressional Payola Investigations occurred in 1959, after the United States Senate began investigating the payola scandal (Wikipedia, 2018).  February 11, 1960 was when President Eisenhower called it an issue of public morality and the FCC proposed a new law, making involvement in payola a criminal act (History, 2018).

In November of 1959, in closed and open sessions before the USA House Oversight Committee, 335 disc jockeys from around the country admitted to having received over $263,000 in “consulting fees” (Hutchinson, 2015).

Prosecution for payola in the 1950s was in part a reaction of the traditional music establishment against newcomers (Wikipedia, 2018). And hit radio started to become a threat to the wages of song-pluggers (Wikipedia, 2018).

After the initial investigation, radio DJs were stripped of the authority to make programming decisions, and payola became a misdemeanour offence (Wikipedia, 2018).

Payola: an ongoing issue:

The rise of streaming, which delivered 1.6 billion of music industry alone in 2014, has threatened radio’s traditional role as the medium which can make or break a hit record (Sherwin, 2015). This encouraged the music industry to revert to “payola” practices, first exposed by a major Congressional bribery and corruption legislations in 1959 (Sherwin, 2015).

A spot on a playlist with tens of thousands of followers could be bought for $2,000, rising to $10,000 for the most popular playlists in 2015 (Sherwin, 2015).

Getting a song on a “buzz” playlist encourages other listeners to add it and share their selections on social media, generating spikes in the streams (Sherwin, 2015). Radio stations began to use streaming data to help choose which “breaking” songs to add (Sherwin, 2015).

In 2005, Sony BMG Music Entertainment, agreed to pay $10 million and to stop paying radio station employees to feature it’s artists to settle an investigation (Sherwin, 2015).

Work Cited:

Hutchinson, L. (2015, August 24). Alan Freed, Dick Clark and the Radio Payola Scandal. Retrieved July 2, 2018 from http://performingsongwriter.com/alan-freed-payola-scandal/

Kelly, K. (2016, February 14). A Brief History of American Payola. Retrieved July 2, 2018, from https://www.noisey.vice.com/da/article/64y8y9/a-brief-history-of-american-payola

McDonald, H. (2018, June 3). Pros and Cons of Payola. Retrieved July 2, 2018, from https://www.thebalancecareers.com/payola-influencing-the-charts-2460759

Payola. (2018, June 9). Retrieved July 2, 2018, from https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Payola

Sherwin, A. (2015, August 20). One of music’s oldest arrangements back with a bang on streaming playlists. Retrieved July 2, 2018, from https://www.independent.co.uk/arts-entertainment/music/news/payola-one-of-musics-oldest-arrangements-back-with-a-bang-on-streaming-playlists-10464513.html

The Payola scandal heats up. (n.d.). Retrieved July 2, 2018, from https://www.history.com/this-day-in-history/the-payola-scandal-heats-up

“The things we truly love stay with us always, locked in our hearts as long as life remains.” – Josephine Baker

One of the most successful African American performers in French history:

On June 3rd 1906, Freda Josephine McDonald was born in St. Louis, Missouri (Norwood, 2017). Throughout her young life, Young Baker had to work odd jobs in order to survive, and if she was unable to find work, she would often dance on the streets, collecting money from onlookers (Norwood, 2017). At the age of 15, Baker ran off and began to perform with an African American theatre troupe (Norwood, 2017). She also married during this time, taking her husband’s last name and dropping her first name becoming: Josephine Baker (Norwood, 2017).

“Baker became one of the most sought-after performers due to her distinct dancing style and unique costumes”

Baker’s performances followed  African themes and style (Norwood, 2017). In her famed show, ‘Dance Sauvage,’ she danced across the stage in a banana skirt (Norwood, 2017).  And after a short while, she became the most successful American entertainer working in France, one of the most photographed women in the world, and earned more than any other entertainer in Europe (NewWorldEncyclopedia, 2018).

In 1927, she starred in the silent film, ‘Siren on the Tropics.’ The film was not successful outside of Europe but her acting career continued (TheFamousPeople, 2017). In November, 1935 she played the role of a Tunisian local girl named ‘Alwina’ in the film, ‘Princess Tam Tam’ (TheFamousPeople, 2017).

Josephine Baker would go on to star in more films including, ‘Faussealerte,’ and ‘Moulin Rouge’ (TheFamousPeople, 2017). Baker became one of the most sought-after performers due to her distinct dancing style and unique costumes (Norwood, 2017).

Follow the link below and you can see why Josephine Baker became well known for her dancing and overall entertaining personality:

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=XBPHceq_6jQ

Baker was more than just a pretty face:

Josephine Baker joined the fight against the Nazi regime – she aided French military officials by passing on secrets she heard while performing in front of the enemy (Norwood, 2017). She transported the confidential information by writing with invisible ink on music sheets (Norwood, 2017). She also participated in the Women’s Auxiliary Air Force, serving as a nurse in the Red Cross, and performing for troops in North Africa and the Middle East to boost morale (NewWorldEncyclopedia, 2018). After war, Baker was awarded the Croix de Guerre and the Legion d’Honneur by General Charles de Gaulle, and the Rosette of the Resistance (NewWorldEncyclopedia, 2018).

After many years of performing in Paris, Baker returns to the United States.

Her return home forced Baker to confront segregation and discrimination (Norwood, 2017). Although she had been based in France, she supported the American Civil Rights Movement during the 1950s (NewWorldEncyclopedia, 2018). She protested her racism in her own unique way, one way was through the adoption of her 12 multi-ethnic orphans, whom she called her “Rainbow Tribe” (NewWorldEncyclopedia, 2018).

In 1951, after she was denied service at the Stork Club in Manhattan, she filed a case of racism against the owner of the club, Sherman Billingsley (TheFamousPeople, 2017).

During the era of the Harlem Renaissance, performed only for integrated crowds (Norwood, 2017). Baker refused to perform in venues that would not allow a racially mixed audience, even in the deeply divided South (Norwood, 2017).

“You know, friends, that I do not lie to you when I tell you I have walked into the palaces of kings and queens and into the houses of presidents. And much more. But I could not walk into a hotel in America and get a cup of coffee, and that made me mad.” – Josephine Baker

Baker’s position against segregation and discrimination was recognized by the National Association for the Advancement of Coloured People (NAACP) (Norwood, 2017). In 1963, she was one of the few women allowed to speak at the March on Washington for Jobs and Freedom (Norwood, 2017). Her speech, as depicted above, detailed her life as an African American woman in the United States and abroad.

After Martin Luther King Jr’s assassination, his widow, Coretta Scott King, approached Baker in Holland to ask her if she would take her husband’s place as leader of the American Civil Rights Movement (NewWorldEncyclopedia, 2018). After many days of thinking it over, Baker declined, stating that her children were “too young to lose their mother” (NewWorldEncyclopedia, 2018).

Josephine Baker will be forever remembered as a talented, quirky, passionate women. One who had the ability to capture people with her dances and songs, while promoting the right of her people.

Work Cited:

Editors. (2017). Josephine Baker Biography: The Famous People. Retrieved on July 2, 2018 from https://www.thefamouspeople.com/profiles/josephinebaker-4908.php.

Norwood, A.R. (2017). Josephine Baker: National Women’s History Museum. Retrieved on July 8, 2018 from https://www.womenshistory.org/education-resources/biographies/josephine-baker.

New World Encyclopedia. (2018). Josephine Baker: New World Encyclopedia. Retrieved on July 2, 2018 from http://www.newworldencyclopedia.org/entry/josephinebaker.

#M2Q3

Hi everyone, my name is Taylor and I am a 3rd-year Sociology student in La Ronge.

For my first blog I decided to write about a ragtime- jazz artist from module two. His name was Ferdinand Joseph LaMothe (1890-1941), otherwise known as Jelly Roll Morton. He was a prominent composer throughout the early 21^st century [1]. He was known for his contributions in ragtime and jazz styles of music. Born in Louisiana, he grew up in a formal music environment often attending the local orchestra shows. Morton began his career in music as a teenager travelling to Storyville playing piano in a brothel [1]. Soon, after his Grandmother kicked him out for playing in a brothel, Morton faced an ethical dilemma in deciding to pursue his musical career and remaining on his Grandmother’s good side. Morton recalls, “She told me that devil music would surely bring about my downfall, but I just couldn’t put it behind me” [2]. Nevertheless, despite the challenging start in his career, Morton persisted and went on to be a world-renowned ragtime-jazz artist.

Perhaps we can credit Morton’s success to his drive and desire to travel while pursuing music. This may not have been entirely his choice, however, because of the conditions that artists had to face during the Great Depression [3]. Regardless, he began by playing shows alone in the effort to learn what styles of music were most prominent across the country. Morton then settled down in the 1920’s and created a band which was named the Red Hot Peppers [1]. They travelled to Chicago, New York, Washington and even Vancouver to play shows.

The ragtime and jazz style of music peaked my interest after reviewing the material from module two. Because of this, choosing to write about Morton was fairly thought-provoking. My favourite of Morton’s pieces that I listened to was Mamie’s Blues. In the beginning of the song Morton reminisces, “This is the first blues I no doubt heard in my life”. I’ll be honest- I did not think I would like the music as much as I did. The only instrument was piano which definitely gave the tune a more acoustic, down-to-earth feel.

The second song I listened to was Wolverine Blues. It is instrumental with piano as the primary instrument along with nice saxophone accompaniment. This song showcased Morton’s talent in a great way; emphasizing a very unique style which was the opposite of that in Mamie’s Blues. I’m no expert, but it sounded like piano rag, very march-like [3].

Finally, the next song I reviewed was Doctor Jazz which was recorded by Morton’s band the Red Hot Peppers. It has many layering parts along with small solos which really kept my interest. The dynamincs changed toward the end of the song as the conclusion got closer- almost like an end to a story. Also, I was able to recognize syncopation in the song. As we know, this is sudden accents that change the rhythm slightly [3].

Through Morton’s music we are able to distinguish that the significance of his contributions lies in the style and lyrics of his music. He, along with others such as Louis Armstrong, made Jazz a prominent genre of music [3]. As a result, I found the music to be really uplifting and entertaining. Not only has given a glimpse into what people used to listen to, but I can also see how popular music has changed over time.

Like many musicians of colour, Morton was denied membership in Ascap, the association that collected royalties for composers [1]. In addition, Morton fought effortlessly to find success throughout the Great Depression. Many recording studios were not in a position to be handing out contracts. After being denied a renewed contract in 1931, Morton continued playing shows but struggled financially [4]. Despite countless struggles, the success that Morton achieved was epic. He was inducted to the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame in 1998 and honoured with a Grammy Lifetime Achievement Award in 2005 [5].

After writing this blog my opinion of the blues genre has changed drastically. It was incredibly relaxing and gratifying to take a night and listen to some different genres of music than that of what I am used too. It also gave me the opportunity to explore outside my own favourable genres and open my mind up to just how many different styles of music there are. I am definitely looking forward to more blog posts!

1. Kinzer, Stephen. 2000. The Man Who Made Jazz Hot; 60 Years After His Death, Jelly Roll Morton Gets Respect. November 28. Accessed July 5, 2018. https://www.nytimes.com/2000/11/28/arts/man-who-made-jazz-hot-60-years-after-his-death-jelly-roll-morton-gets-respect.html.
2. Kremsky, Stuart. n.d. Jelly Roll Morton- Biography. Accessed July 5, 2018. https://www.amoeba.com/jelly-roll-morton/artist/136490/bio
3. Campell, Micheal. 2013. Popular Music in America: The Beat Goes On. Boston: Schirmer Cengage Learning.
4. 2015. Vintage Music. Accessed July 5, 2018. https://www.vintagemusic.fm/artist/12180/.
5. 2014. Jelly Roll Morton Biography. April 2. Accessed July 5, 2018. https://www.biography.com/people/jelly-roll-morton-9415945.

My name is Allison, I am taking this class as an elective to complete my degree by this August! Hoping to learn some interesting things in the next few weeks.

Hello everyone!

My name is Selinah. I am currently in my 3rd year of my BA in Psychology! I am 27 (well I will be in August anyway haha), engaged to an incredible man, and have two daughters aged 6 and 7!

We also have two dogs, a bearded dragon (he’s evil, I swear), and a chinchilla!

In addition to attending University full time, I also work full time for the Saskatoon Health Region! In other words, I have no life outside of my family, work, and university haha! Anyway, that is enough about me!

Minstrelsy and The Problem Of Race

I have decided to write my first blog about minstrelsy and race for the simple fact that I had never heard of the term prior to taking this course. In my entire 27 years of existence, the term “minstrelsy” has never come up in any social or academic conversations. Because I was not aware of what Minstrelsy was, I had no idea that the music we know and love today exists because of it!

The article titled “Whitewashing Blackface Minstrelsy in American College Textbooks”, written by Joseph Byrd, provides a lot of useful information that our textbook fails to mention. In brief, Byrd’s article explores the ways in which minstrelsy incorrectly portrayed the lives of African Americans in the 1800s. According to Byrd, the message/image that was commonly portrayed in Minstrelsy performances was that African American’s were happier as slaves than they ever would be as free people, slavery offered them a good life, and that they were well cared for by their “owners” (80-81). In addition to Minstrelsy incorrectly portraying the lives of African Americans, it strongly reinforced racist stereotypes. Byrd addresses how Dan Emmett, the front man for the Virginia Minstrels, is able to “employ at least three racist stereotypes: blacks are larcenous, stupid, and ugly” (79) in just one short verse in his song “Old Dan Tucker”. Ultimately, his article truthfully explains what Minstrelsy is, thoroughly describes its history, and addresses the fact that it even though it is a huge part of the history of music, it is rarely discussed.  According to Byrd, colleges do not want “students to know about, or instructors be forced to deal with, the existence of such music” (82). In conclusion, Byrd asserts that when powerful publishers and schools try to remove Minstrelsy from American history, it must be challenged because it is an important chapter in African American history as well as music’s history.

What caught my interest in this article was the article itself. In comparison to our text, Byrd carefully analyses a topic that is typically brushed under the rug. I enjoyed his thorough analysis of minstrelsy and race because our textbook fails to really explain anything.  According to Byrd, the term Lumpenproletariat defines the “low-paid and unemployed first-generation whites and Irish immigrants trying to survive in an unskilled labor force that included first-generation free blacks,…” (78). In other words, Lumpenproletariat is a socially constructed term that describes individuals who are not white, not born in America, are of the poor working-class, and are unskilled. Considering that the intended audience for minstrelsy were lower-class individuals, and the individuals considered to be Lumpenproletariat were just that, I myself approach this genre with confusion. Why create an entertainment genre that is incredibly inaccurate and racist for an intended audience that will be offended by it? I understand why Byrd acknowledges that blackface minstrelsy was “closely related to the rise of populism,…” (78). Populism is a hard word to define (seriously, try to find one clear definition online!). However, because Byrd states minstrelsy is closely linked to it and we know who minstrelsy’s audience was, we can assume that when used in this context, it refers to a conflict between the American born white people and anyone not falling under that category.

Jim Crow Laws

Slavery (which Minstrelsy had inaccurately portrayed) ended after the Civil War. However, immediately afterwards America enacted the Jim Crow Laws. These new laws segregated African American people and white people. If you were white, you were superior. If you were black, you had no legal, economic, or political rights (Michael Campbell 95). So after years of slavery, mockery (through minstrelsy), and a war to end it all, America found a new way to once again treat African American’s poorly. Cleverly, they named the laws after a well known character from the minstrel show.

The character of Jim Crow was created in 1832 when Thomas Dartmouth Rice claimed to have observed an “African American street entertainer in Cincinnati doing a song and dance with a peculiar hop step, which he called ‘Jumping Jim Crow'” (Campbell 25). How frustrating it must have been to finally see an end to slavery and then have new discriminatory laws enacted that were named after a racist character.

Conclusion

It is important for us to understand what minstrelsy was, and is, because it is a chief example of the hatefulness of white America, and a true example of the horrible experiences African American’s were forced to endure. While minstrelsy eventually allowed African American’s a foot in entertainments door, the racist aspects of it were unnecessary. I believe that textbooks deliberately avoid this material because it is an embarrassing part of American history. However, like the Holocaust and Residential Schools, it cannot, and should not, be erased from our history. We learn from our history, good and bad. Learning about Minstrelsy has taught me a lot about African American history and music’s history. I was aware of slavery and segregation, but I was not aware of minstrelsy and all of the racism surrounding it. As Byrd’s title clearly states, it is a way of whitewashing our history. Removing this aspect of history from text books does not remove it from history itself. It simply denies students the opportunity to learn about and fully understand African American history when the whole point of a textbook and school is to educate.

Works Cited

Brimmage, Ashley. “Alexander’s ‘The New Jim Crow’ Banned in American Prisons.” The Chimes | Biola University, 31 Jan. 2018, chimes.biola.edu/story/2018/jan/31/alexanders-new-jim-crow-banned-american-prisons/.

Byrd, Joseph. “Whitewashing Blackface Minstrelsy in American College Textbooks.” Popular Music and Society, vol. 32, no. 1, 2009, pp. 77–86., doi:10.1080/03007760802207882.

Campbell, Michael. (2013). Popular Music in America: The Beat Goes On. 4th ed.* Boston: Schirmer/Cengage Learning. ISBN: 978-0-840-02976-8

“Kylie Jenner Accused of Doing ‘Blackface.’” saboteur365, 6 Apr. 2015, saboteur365.wordpress.com/2015/04/06/kylie-jenner-accused-of-doing-blackface/.

TheVisionChasers. YouTube, YouTube, 20 June 2014, www.youtube.com/watch?v=x2Iwa9LeuFM.

Welcome to University of Saskatchewan. This is your first post. Edit or delete it, then start blogging!