Music has always been an integral component of African-American culture. In the 1930’s, despite slavery being abolished,  Jim Crow laws still enforced the segregation of black people. This resulted in blacks residing in more rural areas to become quite isolated from society. However, being disconnected from the outside world is believed to have allowed blacks to rediscover or reinvent the African culture of their ancestors [1]. Thus, eventually inspiring a new genre of music known as the blues, in which stories were shared via song.

Eventually, the blues went on to influence another genre of music. Thomas A. Dorsey, was a blues pianist in the 1920s. Despite being the son of a preacher he had established his career in secular music, that is until one day while at a Baptist Convention, his spirit was moved and he was inspired to use his talents to create music to worship God [2]. When Dorsey began to write what became the first gospel songs, he infused elements of blues music with Protestant hymns and black spirituals [3]. However, the major difference between gospel and the blues was its lyrical content. Gospel means “good news” and the lyrics of gospel songs were meant to uplift its listeners and to provide hope in a higher being. While music was uplifting, the incorporation of the blues scale and seventh chords can still be recognized in many songs in the genre as seen in the video below.

This gospel song has a slower tempo and a kind of somber, bluesy feel to it despite being in a major key, and this is because of the extensive use of seventh chords seen in the chord progressions of the song. Another component of this song that sticks out is the distinctive organ in the background. The Hammond organ was an electric instrument that was initially invented as a cheaper alternative to pipe organs for churches [4]. After its invention in the 30s and integration into churches, it quickly found itself incorporated into black gospel music.

Moving forwards, gospel later influenced another genre of music in the black community. In the 60s, many of the popular black musicians of that time grew up in the church, and thus grew up exposed to church music and gospel. This early exposure influenced their musical styles and provided a way for soul music. Soul music is defined as “emotionally charged black music of the sixties that draws deeply on gospel and blues” [5]. Soul music is raw, and full of emotion. The sounds of soul singers can often elicit emotional reactions from its listeners as it can inspire us to feel, and really empathize with the message that the singer is trying to get across.

An artist who participated in infusing gospel into the blues and synthesizing gospel is Aretha Franklin. Hailed as the Queen of Soul, Aretha Franklin was one of the most prominent soul singers of her era. Growing up in the church, she was a master at mixing both elements of gospel and the blues and delivering the product via gut-wrenching vocals to create soul. Below is a relatively recognizable song covered by Aretha Franklin:

In this emotion filled performance can see elements of gospel and its influence. Looking at the singing style, we can observed her use of melismas, which were distinctive of earlier black female gospel artists lke Mahalia Jackson. Another gospel trait recognizable in this track is again, the use of the organ, while its presence can only be faintly heard in the background throughout the track (becoming more prominent as the song ends), its mere presence adds to the gospel feel of the track. The prominent sound of the piano in the track and its simplistic chords with sevenths in the progression adds the bluesy element to the song.

Another soul singer who can be seen using gospel traits in their music is Al Green. As seen in the song below:

The track starts off with Green singing raspily in a bluesy manner, however once the beat comes in we are met with a unique, electronic take on the organ, this provides the slight gospel feel to the track. The call-and-response manner of the vocals later in the song also add an element of gospel. The song likely falls within the soul section due to it be being a product of the fusion between gospel and the blues, but one thing noticeably in the track are the horns. The horns add an element of jazz to the song. So in conclusion, this song is gospel influenced crossover of blues and jazz.

As soul music was a product of gospel music fusing with the secular blues, the result was music that did not reflect the message of the gospel. Soul music, despite its gospel inspired sound was quite far from gospel lyrically. Early soul music actually consisted of gospel songs, with their lyrics switched out with secular lyrics. An example of this is James Brown’s song Please, Please, Please where the original lyrics that were about God’s love have now become lyrics about the love of a woman. [6] Imaginably, converting gospel music into secular music, or singing suggestive lyrics over gospel sounding records had to have been met with controversy. Even gospel when it first started was met with controversy as it was introducing a secular sound to spiritual music.

From the blues, to gospel to soul, it is evident that previous musical genres can have an impact and shape newer emerging genres. Gospel music today is much different than gospel music in the 1930s, this is because of synthesis and merging existing genres to create sub-genres or entirely new genres. For example, Chance the Rapper, a rapper, has a unique style and many of his songs showcase gospel influence despite being rap as can be heard in the song below.

1.  Campbell, Michael. Popular Music in America: The Beat Goes on. 4th ed. Boston, MA: Schirmer Cengage Learning, 2013, 95.

2. Kemp, Kathryn. “The Father of Gospel Music Wanted to Be a Secular Star.” Christian History | Learn the History of Christianity & the Church. Accessed July 22, 2018. https://www.christianitytoday.com/history/2018/may/father-gospel-music-thomas-dorsey.html.

3. Campbell, Popular Music, 103.

4. “Hammond / Leslie Heritage.” Hammond USA. September 19, 2017. Accessed July 22, 2018. http://hammondorganco.com/about-us/company-profile/.

5. Campbell, Popular Music, 223.

6. “History of Soul Music.” EnglishClub. Accessed July 23, 2018. https://www.englishclub.com/vocabulary/music-soul.htm.

“Whitewashing Blackface Minstrelsy in American College Textbooks” is an article by Joseph Byrd, in which he covers the roots of minstrelsy in America, its audience, major contributors and impact. The article also calls out an issue that is still seen today, the minimization or complete disappearance of this disturbing era in American History Textbooks.

Blackface comedy was a form of entertainment in which white performers stereotypically mimicked and mocked African Americans; parading around with their skin artificially darkened by burnt cork [1]. It originated in England in the mid-18^th century, but became an integral part of American culture by the middle of the 19^th century.

White actors who had seen “real life” blacks, imitated their performances in what were to become the first minstrel shows. Thomas Dartmouth Rice and George Washington Dixon being the pioneers of blackface performance, helped to create two of the popular characters common in minstrel shows; the bumblin’ country Jim Crow and the city slickin’ Zip Coon. These early blackface performances were well received and highly successful, inspiring a plethora of copycat performers who began to pop up and form troupes across the country.

Something that caught my attention was the theme of my previous paragraph. A white man, allegedly “observed” a black man dancing and  and was “inspired.” The white man then reproduces the work of the black man, repackages it in a more acceptable “white friendly” version, and voila! The white man profits. It’s the equivalent of someone plagiarizing your paper, submitting it and getting an A; when you originally received an F. This entire concept is still a present reality, however today it would be coined as “cultural appropriation.”

For example, look at musical artists like Eminem and Iggy Azalea. Eminem, a white American male (born Marshall Mathers), could arguably be named as one of the best rappers of our generation, despite rap/hip-hop historically being a solely African-American genre. Though many, including black hip-hop cosigners, can argue that Eminem is truly talented and deserves his many accolades, it’s challenging to say the same of Iggy Azalea, a white Australian female who was launched into rap superstardom via her golden blonde hair and exaggerated, stereotypical “blaccent” which can be observed in the video below. Though Iggy has yet to put on an actual blackface costume, the idea of mimicking black stereotypes in performance for profit can still be comparable to minstrelsy.

In its earlier years, the target audience for blackface were working class white males known as the lumpenproletariat. Marx and Engels likened this social class to a poor, nomadic tribe that were innately depraved [2]. Breaking down the word lumpenproletariat, we see lumpen and proletariat. For those familiar with Marxism, the proletariat are known as the working class. Cambridge defines the word lumpen as an adjective used to describe people who are poorly educated and ignorant, possessing no desire to change their situation. So in essence, uneducated labourers. In that time period, lower class working class whites and emancipated African-American slaves were in competition for jobs. The fear of the increasing number of African-American migrants coming in and overtaking the workforce is what spurred the Draft Riots of 1863 [3]. Given the tensions between black and white workers, it is understandable that minstrelsy appealed to the lower class white people. Seeing black people in a degrading manner likely empowered the white working class patrons. It likely gave them a feeling of reassurance in their perceived racial superiority. The dehumanizing nature of minstrelsy inspired new prejudice and ignorance in some, and strengthened the notion in others [4].

Seeing black people as lesser than was the foundation of the Jim Crow laws that were seen post-Civil War. The Jim Crow laws enforced the intentional segregation of African-American people in society. Businesses, schools, movie theatres and water fountains are just a few of the places that were explicitly labelled for “Whites” or “Colored.” Comparably to a load of laundry, “coloreds” could not dare to be found in a spot allocated for “whites only.” The name of the Jim Crow laws comes from none other than the infamous “Jim Crow” character created by blackface performer Thomas Dartmouth Rice. This just proves to show the impact of minstrelsy on America; a fictitious character became so mainstream that they became the stereotypical figurehead of black people to the point that laws were named after him.

Going back to the article, Byrd extensively covers many examples of the minstrel songs sung in this era, and their all of their problematic lyrics, omitting and censoring nothing. Though uncomfortable, it is important to look at history a whole, learning from the good, the bad and the ugly. However, “the ugly” (America’s extremely racist past) is often seen as an elephant in the room. It is awkward to discuss, as it makes people uncomfortable. Or to be more specific, it makes those who are still reaping the benefits of the mistreatment of African Americans (white people) uncomfortable or sometimes guilty. The long-term effects of slavery, segregation and racism can still be seen in Modern Day America. Systematic oppression, police brutality, and human rights movements like #BlackLivesMatter are evidence of this.

Personally, I believe most, if not all white people are innately aware of how America’s racist past has given them an upper hand, and how it still negatively impacts the black population today. Activist Jane Elliott can be seen tackling this idea in the video below:

Hitting the nail on the head, Jane challenges the “ignorance is bliss” mentality of many of her fellow white Americans. The fact that nobody stood up shows that they know that African Americans are not treated well in America to this date. Some, like to avoid (or even deny) the topic of racism and feign ignorance because racism makes them feel guilty. Though America is becoming more culturally diverse, White Americans still comprise a majority of the population. Textbook publishers know that the market, especially in the American educational system, is predominantly white, so they have that in mind when writing textbooks. Because the textbooks are written with a predominantly white audience in mind, this is likely why controversial subjects like minstrelsy and blackface are hardly covered, or even completely excluded. Waking up and smelling the coffee would challenge Americans to be morally responsible in acknowledging its country’s historical transgressions; and to work forward in establishing a restitutory solution. However, the idea of the sacrifices that this would entail are not appealing to many. This is why staying “asleep” and whitewashing or eliminating the upsetting parts of America’s history is a more preferred and commonly seen option.

1. Campbell, Michael. Popular Music in America: The Beat Goes on. 4th ed. Boston, MA: Schirmer Cengage Learning, 2013, 18.

2. Stallybrass, Peter. “Marx and Heterogeneity: Thinking the Lumpenproletariat.” Representations, no. 31 (1990): 69-95. doi:10.2307/2928400.

3. Man, Albon P. “Labor Competition and the New York Draft Riots of 1863.” The Journal of Negro History 36, no. 4 (1951): 375-405. doi:10.2307/2715371.

4. Campbell, Popular Music, 28.

5. Joseph Byrd (2009) Whitewashing Blackface Minstrelsy in American College Textbooks, Popular Music and Society,32:1, 77-86, DOI: 10.1080/03007760802207882